creatine raises a handful of sensible questions. This page answers them in order, starting with the fundamentals and moving to applications.
This page was last updated on 2026-02-10 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline compound formed from creatine and one molecule of water. Creatine itself is a nitrogen-containing organic acid that occurs in vertebrate muscle and other tissues. The monohydrate designation refers to the water included in the crystal lattice, not to water added during manufacturing. Its chemical formula is commonly written as C4H9N3O2·H2O. The solid is typically a white, odorless powder with low solubility in water at room temperature. It is one of several creatine forms described in scientific and commercial literature.
The compound was identified in the nineteenth century after chemists isolated a nitrogenous substance from meat extracts. Later work established its role in muscle energy metabolism and its conversion to phosphocreatine. Chemical synthesis of creatine followed, and industrial production made the monohydrate widely available as a purified powder. Interest expanded in the late twentieth century when researchers began studying creatine supplementation and muscle physiology. Historical accounts sometimes differ on exact dates and attributions, but the broad sequence from tissue extracts to synthetic production is well documented.
Creatine monohydrate is a hydrated form of creatine, a nitrogen-containing compound involved in cellular energy metabolism. Its molecular formula is C4H9N3O2·H2O, with a molar mass around 149.15 g/mol. The monohydrate is the most common solid form used in research and commercial settings because it crystallizes readily and remains stable under ordinary conditions. The term monohydrate indicates one water molecule per creatine molecule in the crystal lattice. It appears as a white crystalline powder with low odor.
In the body, creatine is synthesized from arginine, glycine, and methionine, mainly in the liver and kidneys, and is also obtained from foods such as meat and fish. About 95% of body creatine is stored in skeletal muscle, where a fraction is phosphorylated to phosphocreatine. Phosphocreatine serves as a rapid reserve of high-energy phosphate for short bursts of ATP regeneration. The monohydrate form supplies creatine after dissolution and absorption, but it is not itself the active phosphorylated species.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical formula | C4H9N3O2·H2O | Monohydrate includes one water molecule per creatine molecule |
| Molar mass | 149.15 g/mol | Value for the monohydrate; anhydrous creatine is about 131.13 g/mol |
| Appearance | White crystalline powder | Odorless or nearly odorless in purified form |
| Solubility in water | About 13 g/L at 25 °C | Solubility increases with temperature and varies with pH |
| Common synonyms | Creatine hydrate; N-(aminoiminomethyl)-N-methylglycine | Monohydrate distinguishes it from anhydrous creatine |
Identity and purity are assessed with several complementary methods. High-performance liquid chromatography can separate creatine from creatinine and related impurities, often with ultraviolet detection. Nuclear magnetic resonance and infrared spectroscopy provide structural confirmation, while Karl Fischer titration measures water content. Elemental analysis and mass spectrometry may be used for additional confirmation, especially in research or forensic settings. No single method captures every quality attribute, so laboratories typically combine results and compare them against a specification.
Creatine monohydrate is sold as a dietary ingredient in some countries and as a food supplement in others. Regulatory frameworks vary, so purity limits, labeling rules, and permitted claims are not globally uniform. In the United States, it falls under dietary supplement rules, whereas the European Union treats it as a food supplement ingredient. Pharmacopeial monographs, where they exist, can provide public quality standards, but not every product is required to meet them. Questions about long-term effects and patterns of use remain areas of active study rather than settled regulatory findings.
Creatine monohydrate is one of several solid forms of creatine described in the literature. Other forms include anhydrous creatine, creatine hydrochloride, and creatine ethyl ester, each with different solubility and stability characteristics. The monohydrate is distinct from creatinine, a spontaneous breakdown compound that forms when creatine loses water and cyclizes. Commercial descriptions sometimes use synonyms such as methylguanidoacetic acid or N-(aminoiminomethyl)-N-methylglycine, which refer to the same base molecule. These names appear in chemical databases and product labels.
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline compound formed when one molecule of creatine binds with one molecule of water. Creatine itself is a nitrogen-containing organic acid involved in cellular energy transfer, particularly in muscle and nerve tissue. The monohydrate form is the most common solid form used in research and commercial products because it is relatively stable and easy to handle. Its molecular formula is C4H9N3O2·H2O, and its molar mass is about 149.15 grams per mole.
In the human body, creatine is synthesized mainly in the liver and kidneys from the amino acids glycine, arginine, and methionine. Dietary sources include meat, fish, and other animal tissues, which supply preformed creatine. Because plant foods contain little or no creatine, dietary intake varies widely among populations. The compound is stored largely in skeletal muscle, where it is converted to phosphocreatine and used to regenerate adenosine triphosphate during short bursts of activity.
Significant investment has been made in building road and rail links between Copenhagen and Malmö, Sweden (the Øresund Bridge), and between Zealand and Funen (the Great Belt Fixed Link). The Copenhagen Malmö Port was also formed between the two cities as the common port for the cities of both nations. The main railway operator is Danske Statsbaner (Danish State Railways) for passenger services and DB Schenker Rail for freight trains. The railway tracks are maintained by Banedanmark. Copenhagen has a small Metro system, the Copenhagen Metro and the greater Copenhagen area has an extensive electrified suburban railway network, the S-train. Private vehicles are increasingly used as a means of transport. New cars are taxed by means of a registration tax (85% to 150%) and VAT (25%). The motorway network now covers 1,300 km. Denmark has established a prominent position in the integration of intermittent renewable energy sources, particularly wind power, into its national electricity grid. Building upon this expertise, the country has expanded its strategic focus toward the decarbonization of the transport sector. Central to this initiative is the large-scale integration of plug-in vehicles and the implementation of Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology, which utilizes intelligent battery systems to enhance grid stability and energy storage capacity.
=== Cationic ERLIC === A negatively charged cation exchange column can be used for ERLIC separations to reduce the influence of anionic (negatively charged) groups on analyte retention. For example, reducing the influence the phosphates of nucleotides or of phosphonyl antibiotic mixtures; or sialic acid groups of modified carbohydrates, to allow separation based more on the basic and/or neutral functional groups of these molecules. Modifying the polarity of a weakly ionic group (e.g. carboxyl) on the surface is easily accomplished by adjusting the pH to be within two pH units of that group's pKa. For strongly ionic functional groups of the surface (i.e. sulfates or phosphates), lower amount of buffer can be used so the residual charge is not completely ion paired. An example of this would be the use of a 12.5mM (rather than the recommended >20mM buffer), pH 9.2 mobile phase on a polymeric, zwitterionic, betaine-sulfonate surface to separate phosphonyl antibiotic mixtures (each containing a phosphate group). This enhances the influence of the column's sulfonic acid functional groups over its surface chemistry, slightly diminished (by pH), quaternary amine. These analytes will show a reduced retention on the column eluting earlier, and in higher amounts of organic solvent, than if a neutral polar HILIC surface were used. This also increases their detection sensitivity by negative ion mass spectrometry.
AAS are banned by all major sports bodies including Association of Tennis Professionals, Major League Baseball, Fédération Internationale de Football Association, the Olympics, the National Basketball Association, the National Hockey League, World Wrestling Entertainment and the National Football League. The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) maintains the list of performance-enhancing substances used by many major sports bodies and includes all anabolic agents, which includes all AAS and precursors as well as all hormones and related substances.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
24 October – Data from National Records of Scotland indicates there were 24,427 deaths in Scotland between December 2022 and March 2023, 11% higher than the previous year, and the highest number since the winter of 1989–90. Jason Grant, who was hired as Scotland's first period dignity officer in 2022 but then lost the post after it was discontinued amid controversy over the appointment of a male, has settled with his employers out of court for a case of sex discrimination. 24 October – Anas Sarwar, the leader of Scottish Labour, accuses Israel of a "clear breach" of international law in Gaza and says there is "no justification for the withholding of essential supplies" from the people of Gaza. His comments come after a number of Scottish Labour resignations by officials who disagree with Keir Starmer's stance on the conflict. 25 October – Christopher McGowan is sentenced to life imprisonment with a minimum term of 23 years for the murder of his girlfriend of eight weeks, Claire Inglis, which took place after he was bailed to her address. 26 October – The Times reports that WhatsApp messages sent by National Clinical Director Jason Leitch cannot be handed to the UK or Scottish COVID-19 inquiries because he deleted them on a daily basis. Scottish band Young Fathers win the 2023 Scottish Album of the Year Award for their fourth album, Heavy Heavy. Scottish Labour leader Anas Sarwar breaks with the stance of Labour's leader, Sir Keir Starmer, on the Israel–Hamas conflict by calling for a ceasefire in Gaza.
== Micelles == Micelles are composed of surfactant, or detergent, monomers with a hydrophobic moiety, or tail, on one end, and a hydrophilic moiety, or head group, on the other. The polar head group may be anionic, cationic, zwitterionic, or non-ionic. When the concentration of a surfactant in solution reaches its critical micelle concentration (CMC), it forms micelles which are aggregates of the monomers. The CMC is different for each surfactant, as is the number of monomers which make up the micelle, termed the aggregation number (AN). Table 1 lists some common detergents used to form micelles along with their CMC and AN where available.
By 1960, these measures and pressure from insurance companies led to the disappearance of the shoe-mounted fluoroscope, at least in the United States. In Switzerland, there were 1,500 shoe-mounted fluoroscopes in use, 850 were required to be inspected by the Swiss Electrotechnical Association by a decree of the Federal Department of Home Affairs on October 7, 1963. The last one was decommissioned in 1990. In Germany, the machines were not banned until 1976. The fluoroscopy machine emitted uncontrolled X-rays, which continuously exposed children, parents, and sales staff. The all-wood cabinet of the machine did not prevent the X-rays from passing through, resulting in particularly high cumulative radiation levels for the cashier when the pedoscope was placed near the cash register. It is clear that the machine was not designed with proper safety measures in place, leading to dangerous levels of radiation exposure. The well-established long-term effects of X-rays, including genetic damage and carcinogenicity, suggest that the use of pedoscopes worldwide over several decades may have contributed to health effects. However, it cannot be definitively proven that they were the sole cause. For example, a direct link has been discussed in the case of basal cell carcinoma of the foot. In 1950, a case was published in which a shoe model had to have a leg amputated as a result.
In order to regulate the secretion of ACTH, many substances secreted within this axis exhibit slow/intermediate and fast feedback-loop activity. Glucocorticoids secreted from the adrenal cortex work to inhibit CRH secretion by the hypothalamus, which in turn decreases anterior pituitary secretion of ACTH. Glucocorticoids may also inhibit the rates of POMC gene transcription and peptide synthesis. The latter is an example of a slow feedback loop, which works on the order of hours to days, whereas the former works on the order of minutes. The half-life of ACTH in human blood is reported to be between ten and 30 minutes.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== History == ACAM2000 is a vaccine developed by Acambis, which was acquired by Sanofi Pasteur in 2008, before selling the smallpox vaccine to Emergent Biosolutions in 2017. Six strains of vaccinia were isolated from 3,000 doses of Dryvax and found to exhibit significant variation in virulence. The strain with the most similar virulence to the overall Dryvax mixture was selected and grown in MRC-5 cells to make the ACAM1000 vaccine. After a successful Phase I trial of ACAM1000, the virus was passaged three times in Vero cells to develop ACAM2000, which entered mass production at Baxter. The United States ordered over 200 million doses of ACAM2000 in 1999–2001 for its stockpile, and production is ongoing to replace expired vaccine. Emergent Biosolutions developed ACAM2000 under a contract with the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved ACAM2000 in August 2007. By February 2008, it replaced Dryvax for all smallpox vaccinations. As of 2010, there were over 200 million doses manufactured for the US Strategic National Stockpile. According to the US FDA, "The approval and availability of this second-generation smallpox vaccine in the Strategic National Stockpile (SNS) enhances the emergency preparedness of the United States against the use of smallpox as a dangerous biological weapon." In August 2024, ACAM2000 was approved for mpox prevention in the United States.
==== Arsenic-based drugs ==== Despite, or possibly because of, its long-known toxicity, arsenic-containing potions and drugs have a history in medicine and quackery that continues into the 21st century. Starting in the early 19th century and continuing into the 20th century, Fowler's solution, a toxic concoction of sodium arsenite, was sold. The organoarsenic compound Salvarsan was the first synthetic chemotherapeutic agent, discovered by Paul Ehrlich. The treatment, however, led to many problems causing long lasting health complications. Around 1943 it was finally superseded by penicillin. The related drug Melarsoprol is still in use against late-state African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), despite the substance's possibly fatal side effects. Arsenic trioxide (As2O3) inhibits cell growth and induces apoptosis (programmed cell death) in certain types of cancer cells, which are normally immortal and can multiply without limit. Arsenic trioxide-induced necrosis has been shown to provoke immune activation through release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). In combination with all-trans retinoic acid, it is FDA-approved as first-line treatment for promyelocytic leukemia.
This kind of ore they often gather and lay on great heapes, where it heteth and rotteth, and will have a strong and loathsome smell; when being so rotten they cast on the land, as they do their muck, and thereof springeth good corn, especially barley ... After spring-tydes or great rigs of the sea, they fetch it in sacks on horse backes, and carie the same three, four, or five miles, and cast it on the lande, which doth very much better the ground for corn and grass. Today, algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as fertilizers, soil conditioners, and livestock feed. Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. Algaculture on a large scale is an important type of aquaculture in some places. Maerl is commonly used as a soil conditioner.
== Commercial production == Large-scale commercial cherry juice production is typically produced using a hot extraction or a cold extraction method. Hot extraction involves heating the cherries, pressing them, and then straining and filtering to remove solids. Hot pressed cherry juice typically has a deeper coloration compared to that produced using cold extraction. The heating of the fruit also serves to prevent the juice from browning, because the heating stops natural enzymic actions that occur when the fruit is macerated. Cold extraction involves first removing the pits from fresh cherries and then pressing them and collecting the juice. The juice is then heated to kill microorganisms, stop enzyme activity and to solidify particulate matter prior to filtering. As with hot-extracted juice, the cold-extracted juice is also typically strained and filtered. Cold-extracted cherry juice has a greater likeness to the flavor of fresh cherries, and its coloration is lighter compared to that of hot-extracted juice. Frozen cherries are sometimes used, which enables the creation of a juice that has the cherry-like flavor of cold-extracted juice and a deeper coloration such as that produced by hot extraction. Ascorbic acid is sometimes added as a color stabilizer prior to the cherries being pressed. The juice is typically filtered and clarified prior to being packaged, and pasteurization or flash pasteurization is typically utilized. It is sometimes processed as a frozen concentrate.
== Modern medical usage == Apomorphine is used for the management of motor fluctuations in Parkinson's disease, particularly for the treatment of "off" episodes. "Off" episodes are periods during which motor symptoms such as rigidity, bradykinesia, or reduced mobility reemerge as the effects of dopaminergic medications wear off. Apomorphine can provide rapid improvement in motor symptoms. Apomorphine is administered in multiple pharmaceutical formulations. Intermittent subcutaneous injection is used as an acute treatment and has been shown to terminate "off" episodes in individuals with motor fluctuations not adequately controlled with oral therapy. Sublingual formulations have also been shown to be effective as acute treatments of "off" episodes. Continuous subcutaneous infusion of apomorphine using a wearable infusion device is also prescribed for individuals with motor fluctuations. Continuous infusion treatment is used in patients whose symptoms are not adequately controlled with oral or transdermal therapies and has been shown to reduce daily "off" time. Apomorphine is generally used as an adjunct to levodopa-based therapy in patients with Parkinson's disease and motor fluctuations.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a crystalline form of creatine that contains one water molecule per creatine molecule. The compound occurs naturally in muscle tissue and is also produced synthetically for research and consumer products. The monohydrate label describes the solid's hydration state.
Creatine monohydrate contains creatine, but the two terms are not strictly interchangeable. The monohydrate includes water in the crystal, while creatine refers to the base molecule. Other creatine forms pair the molecule with different acids or carriers.
Dietary creatine is found mainly in meat and fish. The human body also synthesizes creatine from amino acids in the liver, kidneys, and pancreas. The monohydrate powder used in products is manufactured rather than extracted directly from food.
Creatine is the base compound, while creatine monohydrate is a solid crystalline form that contains one water molecule per creatine molecule. Once dissolved, the monohydrate dissociates and releases creatine, which can participate in cellular energy metabolism. The monohydrate is the form most commonly used in research and commercial products.